Bolton Data for Inclusion

Bolton Data for Inclusion

The Action Research Centre for Inclusion

(Sponsored by: The Barrow Cadbury Trust)

Bolton Institute of Higher Education.

Data No 14 :

Author(s) :

Simone Aspis

Title :

Why Exams and Tests do not help disabled and non-disabled children learn in the same school.

Abstract :

An in depth analysis of the examination system and it's role in labelling learners intellectual abilities with the learning difficulties label.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the following people: Joe Whittaker of the Action Research For Inclusion who had voluntarily offered financial and editing support to assist with the production of this paper. Karen Barton of Bolton Institute for providing administrative support. Tracy Lazard for providing personal support with developing my ideas on the examination system and impact on disabled people who have been labelled as having learning difficulties.

Title: Examinations that undermine Inclusive Education

Simone Aspis.

The Author.

I am a young, disabled special school survivor. I was labelled by the education system via the examination/assessment system as having learning difficulties. I am an independent advocate for inclusive education which for me is a political issue. I believe we have to address the equalities within the educational system to give the appearance of fairness.

I see inclusive education as creating opportunities where ALL learners can work together with each other. Where they would have their contributions valued by the educational system to the benefit of all. We have to recognise that learning is enhanced when learners of different abilities, different skills, different aspirations can work together in a joint enterprise. The educational system has a responsibility to create learning environments and provide teachers who are skilled at creating ways in which all contributions are recognised as being of equal value. Where the efforts of each learner is recognised as being of an equal challenge regardless of the particular area of the curriculum in which they are working. Fundamental to such a philosophy is the recognition that all learners will require different forms of support at different times of their study and the educational system should have a responsibility in working with the individual learner to devise the most effective and appropriate form of support.

I believe that inclusive education will only be effective when disabled learners are at the forefront of the campaign promoting it. This will require the support of their families and allies. This campaign has to be underpinned by an understanding of the need to change the present educational structure, which currently has not been appreciated by those who advocate inclusive education.

I have written this paper to stimulate the debate and how "real" inclusive education will only happen with the abolition of the examination system.

Introduction:

As stated by Mathews:

Quote A (ref. 1)

"The decline in the value of certificates, and the associated demand for higher and higher qualifications a payment for access to careers, has led to a level of "certificate inflation" which may have undermined the nation's educational system. There comes a point when some certificates are simply not worth having because, as currency for access to employment, they have become half pennies of education. At that point there is a reaction in the academically less able students and the motivating factor of competitive examinations loses it's effect."

Attempts to address the inequalities created by the examination system have failed e.g. moving from group subjects to single subject exams, having different exams for different groups of learners or differential papers in one exam. The method of marking, whether it is continuous assessment or normal/criteria referencing, is doing nothing to improve equality of opportunity for learners in schools.

As the demand increases for the number of examinations, the groups of learners they target decrease. This leads to groups and individual learners being segregated into different types of curriculum. Consequently, there will be no improvement simply by giving all learners equal access to learning, whether they be separate special schools or ordinary mainstream schools, if we then segregate them according to assumed abilities.

This critique is being undertaken to establish the effects of the "examination explosion" upon disabled learners who are being labelled as having "learning disabilities" and the subsequent effect on their opportunities to benefit from inclusive education.

Critique.

An analysis of which groups of children take particular qualifications is the starting point for understanding the categorising and labelling that happens through the examination system.

In the summer of 1998 the first batch of candidates will be taking the new National Certificate of Achievement awards (CoA) which have been approved by the School Curriculum and Assessment Council. These single subject examinations are being piloted and used to credit achievements for learners receiving compulsory education who may not achieve the standard expected for a General Certificate in Secondary Education (GCSE) Grade G.

I conducted a survey to establish which learners are likely to be entered for the CoA awards and why? (see Appendix A). A questionnaire was sent to 120 secondary schools who have registered their interest in offering the awards to some of their learners. The majority of learners who will be taking the CoA will be labelled as having learning difficulties. These youngsters are expected to achieve low GCSE grades. One school representative from the survey said:

“Lower GCSE grades are not of sufficient worth. Prior learning is of much more importance for our pupils.”

Significant numbers of learners are unlikely to be entered for the GCSE. Eleven of the schools from the survey said that learners not entered for the GCSE will "definitely" be considered for the CoA awards. A majority of the schools saw them as an alternative to GCSE. Nineteen schools in the survey supporting CoA entrance did suggest that it was a way of giving learners experience and achievements national accreditation, perhaps for the first time.

As one respondent from the survey suggests, we might be replacing one inequality with another:

“(CoA examinations) Help to address the increasing number of pupils with complex learning needs who are now placed in mainstream school and the increasing disaffection of young people with such a non-vocational system but are we not going back to the 2-tier system: "O" level v CSE!”

The CoA awards should allow National Curriculum level 1 - 3 attainment to be reported. (ref. 2). The Syllabus must be designed to facilitate learning in practical situations, using a variety of media, which are relevant to adult life.

"A document (certificate) issued to a limited target group assists in the perpetuation of labelling the less abel. It may limit chances rather than enhancing." (ref.3)

Figure 1.

CoA Level	NC Level	Scholastic Age	IQ	Pre-Fixed Label
Level 1	1	5 - 7	31	Severe Learning Difficulty
Level 2	2	8 - 10	50	Moderate Learning Difficulty
Level 3	3	11	69	Mild Learning Difficulty

Formula to express expected IQ attainment is:

IQ = 100 ´ Scholastic Age
Actual Age

This labelling process not only applies to examinations directed to particular groups of learners but goes further when learners are entered for mainstream qualifications and achieve "low grades" or "fail" e.g. the GCSE which is traditionally being targeted towards learners who are not labelled as having learning disabilities.

The percentage of learners achieving individual grades in the GCSE does not change very much from year to year.

Figure 2 : (ref 5)

	Grade %
Year	A	B	C	D	E	F	G	Fail
1991 - 1992	9.8	13.6	21.0	18.4	15.9	11.3	5.6	4.3
1992 – 1993	12.6	15.6	21.6	17.6	14.3	9.8	4.7	3.8
1993 - 1994	13.0	17.6	20.4	17.8	13.5	9.4	4.1	4.0
1994 – 1995	10.2	16.	21.1	18.8	14.9	9.9	4.4	4.6
1995 - 1996	11.0	16.5	21.5	18.9	14.4	9.6	4.2	4.0

Each GCSE grade has a corresponding National Curriculum attainment level and IQ bands have a "Intelligence label" attached.

The Secondary Education Assessment Council 1989 recommended to the DES in 1989 that each grade starting form grade G should be equivalent to National Curriculum level attainment, for grade G this would be level 4 working up to grade A which corresponds to the highest National curriculum level 10.

Psychological tests have also had an important influence on the GCSE. The Examinations Board of Education as early as 1924 suggested there would be a very close relationship between the grading of public examinations and the IQ grading of abilities.

""Psychology" tests may probably exercise an important influence on public examination of the ordinary type. It seems probable that the whole theory and technique of ordinary examination will gradually be considerably modified by applying them, so far as possible, to the principles adopted in consrtucting and standardising tests of "intelligence" and "standardised scholastic tests"". (ref.6)

Each GCSE grade is also equivalent to a corresponding IQ. The assumption is that the learners age will be fifteen years and eight months when they are entered for GCSE's. The formula used to express the learners IQ is:

IQ = 100 ´ (scholastic age over the learners age).

A learner who receives GCSE grade G would be expected to be working at a level of a 11 to 12 year old (ref. 7) and would be considered as having "border-line normal" intelligence and achieving an attainment worth recognition.

Subsequently a child entered for the exam who does not achieve a grade did so because their attainment was below what is expected of an eleven year old with an IQ of 70. Consequently many learners with a "mild learning difficulty" label may have been entered for the GCSE exam and failed.

The Examination grade, National Curriculum Level, scholastic age, IQ score and the label attached to the learner are all connected. One could draw the conclusion from such a connection that this reflects nothing more than a self-fulfilling prophecy. This means that learners are accredited not for their efforts during their learning but simply for what is expected of them from the start of the examination system.

Figure 3 : (ref 10)

Grade	N/C Level	Scholastic Age	IQ Score	Pre – Fixed Label
A	9 / 10	18	120	Superior
B	8	17	110 – 119	Bright Normal
C	7	15 / 16	90 – 109	Normal
D	7	15 / 16
E	6	13 / 14	80 – 89	Dull Normal
F	5
G	4	11 / 12	70 – 79	Border-Line

A learner who obtains a GCSE grade E would be expected to have an IQ between the band 80 - 89 which once had a corresponding pre-fixed label of "Dull - Normal" attached to the learner.

A child therefore is not only labelled as having a learning difficulty prior to sitting an exam they are labelled by the type of examination they take. e.g. CoA and within mainstream examinations by expected attainment levels, IQ and the subsequent grade or level achieved.

On the basis of The Dearing Report recommendations, the differential GCSE papers were introduced to learners of varying abilities offering a limited range of grades, however these have done little towards reducing inequalities and continue to label children prior to sitting the examination.

Figure 4 : (ref 4)

NEA

Grades Grades Pre-Fixed Label

Level 1 (Foundation/Basic) E - G E - G Dull - Learning Difficulty

Level 2 (Central/Intermediate) C - F C - E Normal

Level 3 (Higher/Advance) A - D A - C Superior - Normal

This is still the case when the papers were reduced from 3 to 2.

Figure 5 : (ref 4)

Grades Pre-Fixed Label

Level 1 (Foundation/Basic) G - C Learning Difficulties - Normal

Level 2 (Central/Intermediate) D - A* Superior - Normal

It was believed that by combining the General Certificate in Education (GCE) and the Certificate in Secondary Education (CSE) into one core examination the General Certificate in Secondary Education (GCSE) this would reduce the inequalities inherited by having a two-tier system. However, as we have seen,

Quote D

"The standard required of successful candidates in GCSE examinations will not be less exacting grade, than those required in the existing GCE examination." (DES 1985) (Ref.11)

Historically the number of examinations and papers have increased from the school leaving certificate to Ordinary level GCE and CSE to the GCSE. These have all been attempts to enable a greater number of learners to achieve accreditation but they have all failed to address the inequalities inherent in an examination system based on IQ and predetermined labelling. Again it could be concluded that the differential attainments are more to do with indifferent attitudes of schools to significant numbers of learner abilities and contributions.

(see Graph 2)

Attempts to address the needs of learners who fail academic examinations have resulted in the introduction of a range of vocational qualifications. The first started within the professions but soon became necessary for apprenticeships and skilled jobs.

The first attempt for a full-scale review of vocational qualifications in schools was in 1993 by the Department of Employment and Education. Dearing (1993) had developed a national framework, which would enable students to take an academic, vocational or joint route.

Dearing proposed a framework of national awards. (See Appendix B)

Figure 6 : (ref 7)

National Award - Advanced Level

As and A Level GNVQ - Advanced Level NVQ Level 3

National Award - Intermediate Level

GCSE Grades A* - C GNVQ - Intermediate Level NVQ Level 2

National Award - Foundation Level

GCSE Grades D - G GNVQ - Foundation Level NVQ Level 1

National Award - Entry Level

Common to all pathways:-

Three Grades A/B/C.

GCSE's are academic qualifications whilst GNVQ and NVQ's are vocational. The main purpose of the comparison between the qualifications was to establish national standards with scholar attainment, if the student had completed the vocational route.

Figure 7 shows how vocational examination accreditation uses the same statistical model as the academic - examination accreditation, which in return reflects IQ.

Figure 7

GNVQ Foundation / NVQ1 = GCSE grades D - G = IQ 70 - 90

GNVQ Intermediate / NVQ2 = GCSE grades C - A = IQ 90 - 120

GNVQ Advanced / NVQ3 = A/AS Level = IQ 115+

(see Graph 3)

In reality very few children with learning difficulties would be on the GNVQ Advanced course. However, children who are failing in academic study will be directed onto a GNVQ course at foundation level at 14 plus.

The current standardised tests and National Curriculum have led to even further marginalisation and discrimination for learners labelled as having learning difficulties and are both linked to IQ.

With the standardised tests the Government School Inspector would set (standard x) examinations that were taken by children in all Government funded schools. Each pupil would be required to undertake the London County Council Examinations, which had a set of full instructions and norms. The three tests consisted of ten words, which must be read and spelt correctly, and 10 sums to be calculated accurately.

Figure8

Standard VI corresponds with a mental age of VI + 6 =12

Standard V corresponds with a mental age of V +6 =11

Standard IV corresponds with a mental age of IV +6 =10

Standard III corresponds with a mental age of III +6 = 9

Standard II corresponds with a mental age of II +6 = 8

Standard I corresponds with a mental age of I +6 = 7

Children who were thought incapable of passing the standard examination would be educated in Standard 0 class or sent to a special school.

School's financial survival depended on the children's ability to pass these standard examinations under the Revised Code. Since the introduction of payment by result's, children unable to complete the standard examination requirements became labelled.

"Schools were tempted to hand over to the doctor every boy or girl who seemed incapable of making normal progress in his or her own particular school." (ref.8)

As with the revised code, those students who were unlikely to pass the standard examinations were even less likely to access the curriculum. This same concern was expressed with the introduction of the National Curriculum.

Students can be exempted from the demands of the National Curriculum if they have a statement of special educational needs. This gives school heads an opportunity to exclude children from assessing the national curriculum and by doing so take away the pressure of them failing the key stage tests.

“No ordinary schools should be tempted to use the statementing procedures as a pretext for transferring certain pupils to special school or units merely because they aren't expected to perform well on the national assessments at 7, 11, 14 and 16." (ref.13)

A theme running throughout this paper relevant to the inequality faced by children labelled as having learning difficulties in relation to examinations is IQ. The historical development of measuring mental ability is inherent in the testing ability entrenched in examinations and subsequent labelling process.

The first serious attempt of measuring mental ability came from Galton who was one of the co-founders of the eugenic movement. He devised tests to find out if there were human beings who were genetically superior and inferior. He was particularly interested in establishing whether intelligence was inherited (biological) or environmental. Galton initially created fourteen categories from the most illustrious and eminent to imbeciles and idiots.

To achieve this aim, Galton had undertaken research recording the emotional development of children of different ages. These diaries contained the infant's development behaviour sequences and individual differences were used as the basis for development of mental age and associated IQ tests.

Dr. Warner a consultant in London hospitals had noted a significant correlation between mental and physical handicaps in a similar way to Galton. Warner then concluded that a child could be labelled as being mentally defective based on a physical examination. Dr. Warner said:

"The trained observer can read of the physiognomy of the individual feartures and their parts, the facial condition and eye movement, the balance of the head and body etc., as quickly as a printed line"

This approach was based on Holt's "Diseases of Infancy" work which published the physical characteristics of the growing child's height, weight, chest, cranal circumferences, brain weight, dentition and mental abilities. Also educational attainment in the form of reaching a Standard I - VI for 6 - 12 year olds was included. (ref. 14)

Based on Galton and Warner's work, further research was carried out to make the diagnosis of the "mental defective" more scientific and standardised so the credibility amongst the educational profession could be established.

The early attempts at constructing objective mental tests influenced the organisation of the education system and still lay in tact today. When elementary schooling became compulsory, it appeared the easiest way to teach children was to put them into classes with other children of the same age. It was therefore easier to design a curriculum based on what these children could achieve.

Wallin wrote that segregating children would free normal pupils from the restrictions imposed by the deficient, declaring that the education system's highest obligation was to it's normal and brightest pupils.

"By removing the "clinkers" and the "drugs" the regular grades will be thrown open to the normal progress pupils, thereby enabling these pupils to advance more rapidly, and materially reducing the extent of pedagogical." (ref.18)

Binet developed the intelligence Quotation tests based on observations on a large range of children of varying ages to establish what knowledge and skills they picked up. These tests were based on the mental age idea. If an 8 year old child were performing tasks equivalent to a 12 year old, then he or she would be considered as having a mental age of 12. However, if an 8 year old child were performing tasks equivalent to a 4 year old then he or she would be considered as having the mental age of 4. The expression is IQ = 100 (mental age/chronological age).

The Binet-Simon IQ tests were generally used. As an aid to the discovery and classification of sub-normal and mentally defective children. (ref. 23)

Figure 9

General Terms Categories IQ Equivalent

High Grade

Mild Learning Mildly Mental Subnormal

Difficulties Handicapped Feeble-Minded

Mentally Handicapped 50 - 70

Moron

Docile

Mildly retarded

Educationally Subnormal

Moderate Learning Mentally Medium Grade

Difficulties Handicapped Retarded

Mentally Retarded Imbecile 25 - 49

Mentally Defective Trainable

Mentally Subnormal

Severe Learning Severely Mentally Low Grade

Difficulties Handicapped Profoundly Retarded 00 - 24

Idiot

Untrainable

Source After Kirman 1968 (ref.15)

Figure 10

Types of Education (early 19th Century)

Untrainable 00 - 25 Asylum

Trainable 25 - 49 Special Training Centre

Educable 50 - 69 Special Schools

Backward 70 - 89 Class in Mainstream School

Epidemiological cross-sectional studies show that most "severely and moderately retarded" children are classified before or shortly after the age of school entry. The remaining "mildly retarded" children generally become administratively classified around 7 to 8 years of age, which is about as early as IQ tests can predict performance over the school years.

Once a child is administratively classified as "mentally retarded" in a school, it is unlikely that the child will be declassified during the remainder of his or her schooling. This is partly because the pace is slower in special classes and it becomes increasingly difficult to catch up with what would be expected from the peer group in an ordinary school.

Burt (1924) was the first psychologist for the London County council who highlighted four important factors that IQ tests can determine about a young person. (ref. 16)

Figure 11

1. Can or cannot attend a regular school. Someone with IQ less than 50 would not be considered educable in a mainstream class.

2. Can or cannot succeed in the traditional subject matter of elementary school.

3. Can or cannot succeed in the academic or college preparation curriculum through high school with good enough grades for college admission. IQ of 105 was needed.

4. Can or cannot graduate from an accredited four year college course with grades that would qualify for admission to a professional/graduate school. IQ of 115 was needed.

Binet in his own words said:

"The main purpose of the authors (he worked in collaboration with Theodore Simon) in the devising of these tests is to furnish to the teacher a first means by which he may single out mentally backward children who, upon further investigation may also be found to have some mental defect or peculiarity which prevents them form further profiting by the education of ordinary schools; and who probably would profit more by being educated in a special school or a special class." (ref.23)

The development and use of IQ tests grew beyond diagnosing children's mental defectiveness. Firstly IQ tests were used to identify a high level of general ability within gifted children who may benefit from university education. Thereafter these tests were used to identify specific aptitudes, which may predict future success in a chosen vocation.

Hofstader (1962) found that most schools used IQ tests to establish whether children were educable and if so what vocational/academic role they may be prepared to undertake in the future.

Figure 12

IQ Label Percentage of population

130+ Very superior 2.5

120 - 129 Superior 6.5

110 - 119 Above average 16.0

90 - 109 Average 50.0

80 – 89 Below average 16.0

70 - 79 Dull 6.5

40 - 69 High Grade Feeble Minded 2.5

20 - 39 Imbecile

00 – 19 Idiot

"For most of the important special abilities, standardised psychological tests have now been devised; and accurate measurement have been obtained by applying these (IQ) tests to children at successive ages of school life...The mental difference between one age and another can be precisely measured." (Ref 24)

Sperman developed a theory of two levels of intelligence in specific aptitude which may be identified via the IQ test and act as predictors to future success if a child follows a curriculum and undertakes examination in that related area.

Figure 13 : (ref 25)

"G" (general factor in intelligence)

(G)v (G)f

(General/ General/

Verbal Concrete

Abstract Practical

Qualities) Abilities)

Specific abilities - special talents e.g. music, art.

There is a growing need to establish people with special aptitudes in line with more specialisation in the workforce. Hence the need to categorise levels of attainment in specific areas such as verbal and abstract thinking as well as performance in practical tasks.

Schools became places were children were being prepared for their future roles in society.

Figure 14 (ref 18)

IQ Type of Job 20th Century

Early Mid Late

153 Higher Professional & Administrative Secondary Grammar Grammar

132 Lower Professional; technical & exec and

117 Highly skilled; clerical Commercial Technical Specialist School

109 Skilled Manual Trade Secondary Secondary

98 Semi-Skilled Manual Modern Comprehensive

82 Casual Special Special Special

57 Institutional

Special School (trainable)

Mental Handicap Hospital (untrainable)

The Board of Education in 1943 had recommended in the Norwood Report that psychological testing could be used to determine the type of curriculum and learning experiences that learners would benefit from.

Pupils who were academic and are best able to deal with abstract ideas. Who would benefit from Grammar schooling.

Pupils who have specific aptitudes such as art, languages or sciences. Who could follow science or art based courses at technical schools.

Pupils who learn through concrete ideas. Who would be educated in secondary modern schools.

Sperman and Norwood had omitted the fourth type of schooling which was enshrined in the 1994 Education Act which gave the local authority a duty to provide special tuition for "mentally defective children" who were in need of special education or carefully and controlled training programmes.

Duncan tested children in his school using the Binet/Standford Test (chiefly verbal) and with Alexander's performance Test (chiefly practical), securing the following results: (ref. 25)

Range Mean (x) Average score for normal child

Standford/Binet Test 54 / 76 66 100

Alexander Performance 67 / 119 96 100

Duncan found that the students performed worse in the (G) v ability (verbal and abstract qualities) as indicated on the Standford/Binet test. The students' performance on the Alexander Performance test was very similar to what is expected from normal children.

People with IQ of below 70 “can rote-learn series of objects or numbers and undertake trial-and-error learning if given a behavioural reward on correct responses,...” (ref. 17)

Children who have been labelled as mentally handicapped would be unable to pursue self-initiated, complex and conceptual activity. This kind of thinking can not be trained so therefore according to Jenson, curriculum based on thinking about problems and ideas would not benefit children with a "mental handicapped" label. (ref. 17)

This indicated that mentally handicapped students would more likely profit from a very practical course of study and which focused on life and social skills.

"To a great extent, tests were adopted as a means of sorting individuals into the different curriculum in preparation for their future social roles. As long as they classified, their use grew." (ref,26)

School curriculum is concerned about the presentation of knowledge, which involves a pattern of learning experiences

.A grammar school curriculum will consist of theoretical, conceptual and abstract ideas. The learning experience is likely to be one of critical understanding, analysis and development of ideas and solutions to problems and situations. However the special school curriculum will either contain the absence of knowledge or consist of low level knowledge which can be applied to everyday concrete situations. The learning experience is likely to be one of testing competence and using this knowledge appropriately within practical situations.

"The drift of opinion favours the extension of manual or industrial training in special school. Manual and industrial work represent, indeed, the appropriate instrument of an education which is particularly concerned with the direct simulation of the brain through senses, and with the control of movement and ultimately of self-control generally." (1908 Royal Commission on Special Education debate) (ref.26)

A major aim of the special school curriculum has been for children to be socially acceptable, able to conform by undertaking instruction, and behaviour regulated by the teachers. The City and Guilds Skillpower Certificate (Appendix C) tests competence in a range of unskilled tasks with previous training. (ref. 27)

A comparison can be made between the skills, knowledge and ability to solve problems needed in the GCSE and Certificate of Achievement Award syllabuses (Appendix D,E). the CoA Information Technology (IT) course work focus in a pupil's ability to follow and perform instructions using IT applications. (ref. 28) Each assignment is worth 10 marks, 9 marks are allocated for performing the teachers instructions correctly whilst only one mark is allocated for evaluation. The pupil will have no or little need to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the application. However, GCE pupils will be expected, for example, to evaluate the use and appropriateness of software packages being used for a range of purposes. (ref. 29)

GCSE high grades will be awarded on the quality of thought about the model design and use of IT in a range of environments whilst Certificate of Achievement is attained by the quality of implementing instructions.

There are also major differences in the assessment required between the CoA Basic Literacy and GCSE English (Appendix F&G). In the CoA Speaking and Listening assessment pupils will gain accreditation if they can demonstrate holding a conversation which involves developing other people's ideas; (ref. 30). This implies the ability to follow other peoples ideas. However GCSE students are expected to argue their own ideas in a persuasive manner. This shows that CoA students will be marked on their ability to conform whilst those taking GCSE marks will be awarded for holding a different view and being able to argue it effectively. Within the reading section GCSE students will be expected to read with engagement; be fully aware of different interpretations; able to distinguish between fact and opinion; follow an argument and highlight inconsistencies. However CoA pupils will be expected just to read a passage fluently without having any critique of what has been read.

Consequently the children's "Educational" label will pre-determine the type of curriculum which may or may not contain the expectation of acquiring skills, knowledge and an ability to think. Students who are not labelled as having learning difficulties will follow a curriculum that enables them to think about a range of ideas, solutions and their influence on practical situations. However students labelled as having learning difficulties will have a curriculum which very much focuses on following instructions in every day practical situations. These students will be denied their ability to think about the wider context that their every day experiences are influenced by. The emphasis will move from learning to evaluate to training by instruction for these students.

Conclusion:

"The use of examination as education stimulants or for coercion implies that young people need to be stimulated compelled to work, that is to say, it assumes the existence of human imperfection..." (ref.31)

The public examination system which had been predicted at the turn of the century would replace Binet's IQ system was based on the Eugenics movement. Co-founder of this movement was Francis Galton who sought to grade children's mental and physical differences in order to determine superior races of people. This surely can be no basis for an education system.

The present examination system grades intellectual imperfections in order to determine the level of community participation each person will be likely to have. A person who has demonstrated so called "perfect" intellectual ability by acquiring high level qualifications does indeed have greater access to higher paid jobs and power, which often brings about greater autonomy.

However, a person who has showed so called intellectual imperfections via the examination system are more likely to be unemployed, have less autonomy in their lives and less power.

Therefore the examination system, as it is now organised, discriminates against large numbers of people and in particular people labelled as having learning disabilities. It is based upon a very narrow and highly questionable human characteristic and leaves people taking ownership of a schooling systems failure.

The obsession we have with assessing individual intellect, and making comparisons with other learners is firmly linked to the thinking of Galton's need to identify the mental differences of children of the same age. The by-product of his and Binet's IQ testing was used to "sort out" those children who should be in the community and those who should not. Presumably in order to create the "perfect human race".

The more examinations there are, the more children's so called intellectual “imperfections” are highlighted, documented and used against them. Any attempt to introduce examinations to accommodate the diversity of learning abilities will perpetuate the same inequalities. The move from one examination, The School Leaving Certificate and General Certificate in Education (GCE) to a two tier GCE O-Level and Certificate in Secondary Education (CSE) and now General Certificate in Secondary Education (GCSE) with a three tier examination had done nothing to change the inequalities within the schooling system or value the participation of people labelled as having learning difficulties. This is because once disabled people with learning difficulties start taking certain examinations the criteria will change in such a way that those individuals will always remain at the bottom of the league of so called intellectual imperfection. This is because the disabled learner is labelled on entrance to the school and the examination system will serve to maintain a self-fulfilling prophecy of negative differences.

The way forward is for all learners, which includes disabled learners, to be able to access their own learning. Schools have to find more creative ways to enable learners to keep a personal record of their own achievements.

References:

1 John C. Mathews - Examinations A Commentary, George Allen & Unwin (1985)

2. DFEE - Staturoty Approval of Qualification Under Section 400 of Education Act 1996 (Circular number 4/97) (1997)

3. J. Mathews - Commentary, Tattersall (1993)

4. GCSE Regulations and Criteria March 1995.

5. DFEE - Statistics of Education Public Examinations GCSE + GCE (1990 - 1995)

6. Board of Education - Report of Consultative Committee Psychological Tests of Educable Capacity and their use in the Public School of Education 1924.

7. Dearing Rob, - Review of Qualifications for 16 - 19 year olds (1996) SCAA

8. Barrie Hudson - Assessments Techniques an Induction Methuen Educational Limited (1973)

9. Schooling for the Mentally Retarded - A Historical Prospective Brian Preen - University of Queensland Press - 1976.

10. SEAC - Assessing and Reporting Achievement at Age 16 or otherwise in Key Stage 4 -1989.

11. DES - Introductory booklet on GCSE (1985)

12. Cyril Burt - The Subnormal Mind. Oxford University Press (1955).

13. NCC - Curriculum For All (1989).

14. A.F. Tredgold - Mental Deficiency. Tindall & Cox (1908)

15. Office of Health Economics - Mental Handicap (1973).

16. Cyril Burt - Mental and Scholastic Tests - Staples Press.

17. Howard Sharron - Changing Children's Minds, Revolution in the Teaching of Intelligence - A Condor Book, Souvenir Press (E&A) Ltd. 1987.

18. W, Bonney Rust and H.I.P. Harris - Examinations : Pass or Failure? Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd. (1967).

19. Asois Ray - Retired Teacher (Oral).

20. Norwood Report on the Curriculum and Examinations in Secondary Schools.

21. Norwood Report on the Curriculum and Examinations in Secondary Schools.

22. Norwood Report on the Curriculum and Examinations in Secondary Schools.

23. Brian Green - Schooling for the Mentally Retarded - A Historical Perspective. University of Queensland Press. 1976.

24. Brian Green - Schooling for the Mentally Retarded - A Historical Perspective. University of Queensland Press. 1976.

25. Brian Green - Schooling for the Mentally Retarded - A Historical Perspective. University of Queensland Press. 1976.

26. Sally Tomlinson - A Sociology of Special Education. Routledge & Kegan Paul (1982).

27. City & Guilds - The Skillpower Certificate. (1996)

28. MEG - Certificate of Achievement in Basic Information Technology (syllabus code 3912) (1996).

29. SCAA - GCSE Regulations and Criteria (1996).

30. MEG - Certificate of Achievement in Basic Literacy (code 3911) (1996)

31. The Action of Examinations Considered as a Means of Selection. Deighton Bell and Co., Cambridge (1977).

Bibliography:

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Batho, Gordon. Political Issues in Education - Casell Educational Limited. (1989). Westminster University.

Begab, Michael & Richardson, Stephen. The Mentally Retarded and Society (Social Science Perspective) University Press. (1973).

Benn, Caroline & Chitty, Clyde. Thirty Years On Is Comprehensive Education Alive and well or Struggling to Survive? Penguin Books (1997).

Bines, Hazel & Roaf, Caroline. Needs, Rights and Opportunities Falmer Press. (1989).

Bonney Rust, W. & Harris, H.F.P. Examinations : Pass or Failure? Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd., (1967).

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Chanan, Gabriel & Gilchrist, Linda. What School is For. Methuen & Co. Ltd., (1973)

Davies, J.B.T. & Jones, G.A. The Selection of Children for Secondary Education

DFEE Circular number 4/97 (1997)

Deighton & Bell On the Action of Examinations Cambridge (1977)

DES Statistics of Education Public Examinations GCE, CSE & School Leavers (1979-1989)

DES National Curriculum - Task Group on Assessment and Testing (1987)

DES Statistics of Education Public Examinations GCE, CSE & School Leavers (1989-1990)

Desforges, Charles. Testing and Assessment Cassell Educational Limited. (1990)

Examininng at 16+ Report of the Joint GCE/CSE Committee of the Schools Council. HMSO (1966)

Ginsburg, Herbert. The Myth of the Deprived Child - poor children's intellect and education.

Goacher, Brian. Selection post 16 : the role of examination results Schools Council Bulletin Methuen Educational (1984)

Gree, Brian. Schooling for the Mentally Retarded - A Historical Perspective. University of Queensland Press.

Heinemann All About the National Curriculum (1989)

HMSO Examinations Bulletin Number 1 CSE (1963)

Hudson, Barrie. Assessments Techniques on Induction Methuen Educational Limited on (1973)

Kingsdon, Michael & Stobart, Gordon. GCSE Examinations Falmer Press (1988).

Kingsdon, Michael The Reform of Advanced Level Hoddart Stoughton (1991)

Lawton, Denis. The Politics of School Curriculum Routledge & Kegan, Paul (1980) Westminster University.

Meighan, Roland. A Sociology of Education Holt Rineheart and Wineston (1989) Westminster University.

Office of Health Economics Mental Handicap (1973)

Sharrob, Howard. Changing Children's Minds Feuerstein's Revolution in the Teaching of Intelligence Souvenir Press.

SEAC Assessing and Reporting Achievement at Age 16 or otherwise in Key Stage 4 (1989)

Simon, Brian. Intelligence, Psychology Education A Marxist Critique (1978)

Sumner, Roy. The Role of Testing in Schools NFER Nelson (1987)

Thompson, Jane L. Sociology Heinemann (1989)

Tomlinson, Sally. Educational Subnormality. A Study in Decision-Making Routledge & Kegan Paul (1981)

Tomlinson, Sally & Colquhoin. The Political Economy of Special Needs in Britain, Disability and Society 10, 2 (1995)

Tredgold, A.F. Mental Deficiency Tindall & Cox. (1980)

Visser, John & Upton, Graham. Special Education in Britain after Warnock David Fulton (1993) Camden Library.

Warnock Mary A Common Policy for Education Oxford University Press (1989) pp70-104.

Questionnaire

APPENDIX A: EXAMINATIONS AND EDUCATION FOR ALL

School Name : Special Mainstream

Borough :

HeadTeacher :

Why is your school thinking about entering students for the Certificate Of Achievement Award?

Which students are you thinking will enter these examination?

These students can either have or not have a statement of special educational needs.

Students with physical impairments without learning difficulty Yes/No

Students with learning difficulties Yes/No

Students with behaviour emotional difficulties Yes/No

Non disabled students Yes/No

If non disabled students are entered for these examinations then say who and why?

How likely will it be for a student to be entered for the certificate of achievement award whilst taking GCSE papers?

For example will a student be entered in for a GCSE intermediate paper as well as a certificate of achievement award in the same subject.

Students Definite Very Some Very Definite

No Unlikely times Likely Yes

Students doing GCSE higher

Students doing GCSE intermediate

Students doing GCSE basic

Students not entered for GCSE

Does the school see these certificates of achievement as alternatives to GCSE examination entry if yes why

I conducted a survey to find out from school who would benefit from the Certificate Of Achievement Awards and whether the examinations were seen as an alternative to GCSEs.

120 questionnaires were sent to mainstream and special schools who were known to be registered as a centre offering the certificate of achievement awards.

28 schools returned their questionnaires, of which 15 were mainstream and 13 were special schools. 26 questionnaires were filled in.

Question 1.

Which students are you thinking will enter these examinations? These students can either have or not have a statement of special educational needs?

M/S S

Students with physical impairments without learning difficulty 1 1

Students with learning difficulties 11 10

Students with behaviour emotional difficulties 7 5

Non disabled students 4 n/a

Schools who entered non-disabled students said that the certificate of achievement awards would benefit students who were bi-lingual and those who have poor school attendance records.

Question 2

How likely will it be for a student to be entered for the certificate of achievement award whilst taking GCSE papers. For example will a student be entered in for a GCSE intermediate paper as well as a certificate of achievement award in the same subject?

Mainstream School	Definite No	Very Unlikely	Some times	Very Likely	Definite Yes
GCSE Higher Level	4	2	1	0	0
GCSE Intermediate Level	3	3	1	0	0
GCSE Basic Level	1	4	4	3	1
GCSE None	1	1	1	3	4

Special School	Definite No	Very Unlikely	Some times	Very Likely	Definite Yes
GCSE Higher Level	2	2	0	0	0
GCSE Intermediate Level	2	2	1	0	0
GCSE Basic Level	2	1	3	4	1
GCSE None	0	0	1	2	7

All School	Definite No	Very Unlikely	Some times	Very Likely	Definite Yes
GCSE Higher Level	6	4	1	0	0
GCSE Intermediate Level	5	5	2	0	0
GCSE Basic Level	3	4	4	5	8
GCSE None	1	1	2	5	11

Question 3:

Why is your school thinking about entering students for the certificate of achievement award?

Six main reasons were given:

Reason M/S S/S

National accreditation for examinations

below GCSE grade G standard. 8 9

Recognise positive achievements 2 1

Motivation 1 1

Offer smaller hurdles towards GCSE 1 1

Visible accreditation for peers, parents and employers 1 0

They have learning difficulties 5 2

(Schools who have just stated that their children

have learning difficulties or a unit for them etc.)

Question 4:

Does the school see these certificates of achievement as alternatives to GCSE examination entry if yes why?

	M/S	S	Total
Yes, as an alternative	4	8	12
Sometimes	4	0	4
No, as an alternative	4	3	7
No Comment	1	2	3

Reasons given for the certificate of achievement awards being considered as an alternative.

Students will not achieve a GCSE grade G

GCSE low grades are not sufficiently valued

Students with severe learning difficulties deserve the highest standard of education.

Reasons given for the certificate of achievement to be considered both as and not an alternative.

Students can follow GCSE and certificate of achievement award and decision can be made just before entry which exam would be most appropriate.

Students are able to do the certificate of achievement award alongside GCSE and GNVQ courses.

Appendix B

Both NVQs and GNVQs are listed in the NVQ framework. Each NVQ and GNVQ is given a title and a level. The framework shows how qualifications relate to each other and people can progress through the system.

Areas Of Competence

The primary purpose of the NVQ framework is to create a coherent classification for qualifications and to facilitate transfer and progression, both within areas of competence and between them.

The main headings for the NVQ framework classification result from a functional analysis of work roles, and provide the initial organising structures for competence-based qualifications. Further refinements to the system are being made as the qualifications are developed and routes for progressing/transfer are identified.

Level

The following definitions of the NVQ levels provide a general guide and are not intended to be prescriptive.

NVQ Foundation:- Allows students to prepare for their future by providing the opportunities to acquire knowledge and skills relevant to the world of work.

NVQ Level 1:- Competence in the performance of a range of varied work activities, most of which may be routine and predictable.

NVQ Level 2:- Competence in a significant range of work activities, performed in a variety of contexts. Some of the activities are complex or non-routine, and there is some individual responsibility or autonomy. Collaboration with others, perhaps through membership of a work group or team, may often be a requirement.

NVQ Level 3:- Competence in a broad range of varied work activities performed in a wide variety of contexts and most of which are complex and non-routine. There is considerable responsibility and autonomy, and control or guidance of others required.

Appendix C

City and Guilds Skillpower Certificate

Who is skill power for?

“Skillpower is relevant to all students for whom a gradual approach to the national vocational structure is appropriate... Those with particular learning or physical needs”.

Some of the units are outlined as follows:

Understanding the need to maintain punctuality and attendance

1. Understand the reason for being on time.

2. Understand the need for regular attendance.

3. Explain reasons why regular attendance might not be possible.

4. Attend regularly and punctually unless there are good reasons not to.

5. Find out the best route and method of travel to get to a work place on time.

Management of learning

Working Alone

1. List your achievements to date.

2. List what you are good at.

3. List what you find difficult.

4. Ask for help when you need it.

5. Listen to help and advice from other people.

6. Follow a simple plan to complete a given task.

7. Complete a simple given task within a time limit.

Exploring 2D media and techniques to develop ideas.

1. Use 2D media and techniques to complete a piece of finished work in response to a given brief or theme.

2. Meet health and safety requirements.

Manufacturing Products.

A plan to produce a batch of three of a product which shows that you can.

1. Discuss and list the requirements of the given product specification.

2. List the equipment and materials needed for production/assembly.

3. List the order of production/assembly operation.

4. List simple ways of checking quality.

5. Describe the main health, safety and where appropriate, hygiene requirements.

Appendix D

MEG Certificate Award National Entry Level

Basic Information Technology (1998 Syllabus) Criteria page 14

Aim

* To help candidates to develop and consolidate their knowledge, skills and understanding in Information Technology.

* To encourage candidates to select from a range of IT tools and information sources, those that are appropriate for a variety of tasks.

* To encourage candidates to develop further as autonomous users of Information Technology.

* To encourage candidates to continue to develop their Information Technology skills in order to enhance their work in a variety of ways.

* To provide opportunities for candidates to evaluate the applications they use and their relevance to the outside world.

Level 1 (5 year old)

Candidates use IT to assemble text and symbols to help them communicate ideas. They explore information held on IT systems, showing an awareness that information exists in a variety of forms. They recognise that many everyday devices respond to signals and commands, and that they can select options when using such devices to produce different outcomes.

Level 2 (8year old)

Candidates use IT to help them generate and communicate ideas in different forms, such as text tables, pictures and sound. With some support, they retrieve and store work. They use IT to sort and classify information and to present their findings. Candidates control devices purposefully and describe the effects of their actions. They use IT-based models of simulations to investigate options as they explore aspects of real or imaginary situations.

Level 3 (11 year old)

Candidates use IT to generate, amend, organise and present ideas. They use IT to save data and to access stored information, following straightforward lines of enquiry. They understand how to control equipment to achieve specific outcomes by giving a series of instructions. They use IT-based models or simulations to help them make decisions, and are aware of the consequences of their choices. They describe their use of IT and it's use in the outside world.

Examples Certificate Of Award's Assignment which pupils must undertake MEG Certificate Of Achievement National Entry Level (1998) page 26.

Spreadsheet Title "TUCK"

A	B	C	D	E	F
1. Item	Purchase Cost in Pence	Selling Price in Pence	Number Sold Each Day	Pence in Profit	Total Profit in Pence
2. Mars Bar	20	24	10	=(C2 – B2) ´ D
3. Twix	20	24	10	=(C3 – B3) ´ D3
4. Snickers	30	36	8	=(C4 – B4) ´ D4
5. Topic Bar	35	40	10	=(C5 – B5) ´ D5
6. Picnic Bar	25	28	6	=(C6 – B6) ´ D6
7. Tiffin Ba	15	18	20	=(C7 – B7) ´ D7
				=SUM(E2:E7

The formulae used in cell E2 to E7 should calculate the profit made by selling each of the products as indicated above.

The task requires pupils to :

* Open the spreadsheet file

* Make a change to cell B2 and print the spreadsheet

* Make a change to cell C3 and print the spreadsheet

* Decide which of the changes made has the biggest impact on column E

* Change the value in cell D4 and print out the spreadsheet file

* State the final value in cell F8

* Save the file using a different file name.

The task may be developed for use with the GCSE short or Fullcourse by asking the candidates to :

* Explain the formulae used

* Change a greater number of variables

* Predict what will happen to profit when variables are changed.

* Increase the complexity by carrying out the task for a week or month showing trends

* Vary profit margins or introduce fixed costs

* Design and implement a real system

Example Certificate Of Award's Assignment which pupils must undertake MEG Certificate Of Achievement National Entry Level (1998) page 23

Handling Data Task

Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4

Record Make Number of Doors Colour Engine Size cc

1 Ford 4 Red 2000

2 Volvo 5 Black 1800

3 Vauxhall 3 Blue 2000

4 Ford 5 Blue 1600

5 Ford 3 Blue 2000

6 Vauxhall 5 Yellow 2500

7 WW 4 Green 1000

8 Ford 5 Red 1400

9 Rover 5 Blue 1800

10 Ford 5 Green 1400

11 Rover 4 Violet 1000

12 Toyota 5 Grey 2000

The task requires pupils to:-

* Choose the correct datafile

* Open the datafile

* Sort the datafile by "MAKE"

* Carry out searches to find all "FORD" cars: all "FORD" cars with 5 doors and refine the search to find a "Blue Ford" car with 5 doors

* Save the file using different file name

* Print out the results of search

* Print out the results of the sort

* Print out a copy of the complete datafile

* Indicate which fields are text and which are numeric

The task may be developed into one suitable for use with the GCSE short, or Full Course candidates, such as Task 3 of the "Course Work Exemplar Booklet", by using information the pupil collects to set up his or her own database.

Appendix E

GCSE Criteria For Information Technology (SCAA 1995) Page 55-57

Aim

All Syllabuses should give pupils opportunities to

1. solve problems through the use of Information systems and associated principles and techniques.

2. develop a broad and balanced view if the range of applications and information systems and to understanding of their capabilities and limitations.

Level 5 (12/13 year old) GCSE Grade F Criteria

Candidates demonstrate a basic knowledge and understanding of familiar, simple information processing applications and of the techniques and systems needed to support them. They will have knowledge of some of the basic terms and definitions. They respond to needs and opportunities and evaluate ways of addressing using information systems. When collecting information, they understand the need for precision in framing questions. They use IT to present work and demonstrate how it contributes to the development and modification of their ideas. They manipulate and interrogate previously stored information. Candidates develop, test and modify sets of instructions to control devices to act in a pre-determined sequence of effects. They use computer models and simulations to detect patterns and relationships.

Level 6/7 (15/16 year old) GCSE Grade C Criteria

Candidates demonstrate a knowledge and understanding of the range and scope of information processing applications and of the techniques and systems, including the software and hardware sub-systems, needed to support them. They will have a good grasp of basic terms and definitions and be able to contrast and compare related ideas. They can identify needs and opportunities and analyse, design and evaluate appropriate ways of addressing these using information systems. Using information from a wide range of sources, candidates will be able to produce appropriate solutions to a range of problems. They use complex lines of enquiries to test hypotheses. Candidates can develop, trial and refine sets of instructions to control IT devices demonstrating an awareness of efficiency and economy. They understand that devices can be made to respond to data from sensors. Candidates use computer models to help and test hypotheses. They demonstrate a clear sense of audience and purpose in their presentations.

Level 9/10 (18 year old) GCSE Grade A Criteria

Candidates demonstrate a sound knowledge and understanding of a range and scope of information processing applications and of the techniques and systems some of which are outside their everyday experience, including the software and hardware sub-systems needed to support them. They will have a good grasp of terms and definitions and be able to contrast and compare related ideas. They would be able to apply general principles of information processing to given situations and can abstract general principles from given examples. They can identify a range of needs and opportunities and analyse, design and evaluate the most appropriate ways of addressing these using information systems. Candidates are able to evaluate software packages and complex computer models, analysing the situation for which they were developed to assess their efficiency, appropriateness and ease of use. They are able to design and implement systems for others to use. They are able to discuss methods of detecting the loss or corruption of electronic information and describe steps that can minimise the likelihood of the abuse of personal information. They can produce effective working solutions to a range of problems of varying complexity.

Appendix F

MEG Certificate Award National Entry Level

Basic Literacy (Syllabus Code 3911)

Syllabus Content

In Speaking and Listening, to assess the candidate's ability to:

* Formulate and express ideas;

* Listen, understand and respond appropriately to others;

* Recognise the need to adapt speech to situation and audience;

* Use the vocabulary and grammar or standard English

In Reading, to assess the candidate's ability to:

* Read accurately and fluently;

* Understand and respond to texts;

* Retrieve and organise information;

In Writing, to assess the candidate's ability to:

* Organise and express ideas and information;

* Recognise the main features of different forms of writing;

* Spell simple words accurately;

* Use basic punctuation accurately;

* Write legibly, using joined handwriting.

Appendix G

GCSE Criteria For English (SCAA 1995) Page 36-37

A Syllabus must require the range of speaking and listening assessed to include talk to:

* Explain, describe, narrate;

* Explore, analyse, imagine;

* Discuss, argue, persuade;

A syllabus must require the range of reading assessed from the English Literacy heritage to include pose, poetry and drama. Within this, the range must include work by at least one author published before 1900..., a play by Shakespeare and work by at least one major author with a well-established critical reputation whose work was published after 1900. The range of reading assessed must also include non-fiction, media and texts from other cultures and traditions. Assessment would include level of interpretations, distinctions being made between facts and opinions and how information is presented in such a way; cross-referencing between different sources of information and following an argument which includes identifying implications and recognising inconsistencies.

A syllabus must require the range of writing assessed to include writing to:

* Explore, imagine, entertain;

* Inform, explain, describe;

* Argue, persuade, instruct;

* Analyse, review, comment.

Further information is available from:

Karen Barton (k.barton@bolton.ac.uk)
Bolton Institute
Chadwick Street
Bolton, BL2 1JW
England

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